Haeckel's Anniversary: 100 Years Since the Birth of the German Darwin
Ernst Haeckel didn't just discover thousands of species - he opened humanity's eyes to the interconnectedness of all life on Earth.
On February 16, 1934, the global scientific community celebrated the centenary of Ernst Heinrich Haeckel's birth - the German biologist, artist, and philosopher whom contemporaries called the "German Darwin". By this date, his legacy appeared in all its contradictory complexity: a passionate propagandist of Darwin's ideas, creator of the famous biogenetic law and scientific terms known to every schoolchild today, a talented artist and thinker whose works influenced not only science but also art, philosophy, and even ideology.
Legacy That Survived a Century: Haeckel's Main Achievements
Discovery of Thousands of Species and New Scientific Disciplines
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel was born in 1834 in Potsdam1 . He studied medicine and natural sciences at several German universities, and in 1857 received a medical diploma, but never practiced medicine, becoming fascinated with the study of living nature1 6 .
A six-month study of marine plankton in the Strait of Messina led to his discovery of 120 new species of radiolarians - microscopic marine organisms with intricate mineral skeletons1 . Throughout his life, Haeckel described more than 3500 species of these creatures7 .
Science owes Haeckel the introduction of such fundamental concepts as "ecology", "phylogeny" and "ontogeny"1 3 . He also introduced into biology the terms "Pithecanthropus" (an intermediate link between ape and human, whose existence was later confirmed by finds on Java Island) and "Metazoa" (multicellular animals)1 .
| Term | Year Introduced | Modern Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Ecology | 1866 | Science of relationships between organisms and their environment |
| Phylogeny | 1866 | Historical development of species, their evolutionary history |
| Ontogeny | 1866 | Individual development of an organism from embryo to adult form |
| Pithecanthropus | 1866 | Fossil human ancestor (now Homo erectus) |
Haeckel's Scientific Timeline
1834
Born in Potsdam, Germany
1857
Received medical diploma but turned to natural sciences
1866
Introduced terms "ecology", "phylogeny", and "ontogeny"; formulated biogenetic law
1899-1904
Published "Kunstformen der Natur" (Art Forms in Nature)
1906
Founded the Monist League
1919
Died in Jena, Germany
Biogenetic Law: Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny
In 1866, Haeckel, together with Fritz Müller, formulated the biogenetic law, which stated: "Ontogeny is a brief and rapid recapitulation of phylogeny"2 . This meant that in individual development (from embryo to adult) an organism repeats the main stages of the evolutionary history of its species.
The idea of recapitulation was not entirely new - it had been expressed before Haeckel2 . However, it was he who gave it a concise, memorable formulation and actively used it as evidence for evolution4 . The law explained why, for example, mammalian embryos at a certain stage of development form gill slits, similar to those in fish - this was interpreted as a "memory" of fish-like ancestors4 .
| Development Stage | Comparison with Ancestral Forms | Scientific Interpretation |
|---|---|---|
| Mammal embryos have gill slits | Similarity to fish gill slits | Reminder of aquatic vertebrate ancestors |
| Heart development in human embryo | Passes through stages similar to fish, amphibian, reptile hearts | Demonstration of evolutionary stages of circulatory system |
| Embryonic tail in humans | Resembles tail sections of ancestral forms | Rudimentary structure disappearing by birth |
Embryonic Development Comparison
Comparative illustration showing similarities in early embryonic stages across species
Haeckel the Artist: Where Science and Art Meet
Haeckel was not only an outstanding scientist but also a talented artist. In his youth, he even seriously considered becoming a landscape painter, and his interest in drawing persisted throughout his life1 .
The illustrations of radiolarians, jellyfish, and other organisms collected in the book "Kunstformen der Natur" ("Art Forms in Nature") amaze with their precision and aesthetic perfection3 . These works not only served science but also significantly influenced the Art Nouveau movement in art3 .
Jellyfish Illustrations
Haeckel's detailed drawings of medusae demonstrated both scientific accuracy and artistic beauty.
Radiolarian Studies
His intricate drawings of radiolarians revealed the stunning symmetry of microscopic marine life.
Haeckel's illustrations from "Kunstformen der Natur" (Art Forms in Nature) influenced both science and art, particularly the Art Nouveau movement.
Controversy and Criticism: Revisiting the Biogenetic Law
During his lifetime, Haeckel faced serious criticism. Anatomist Wilhelm His accused him of falsifying embryo drawings, claiming that Haeckel exaggerated their similarity4 . Indeed, some subsequent studies showed that his famous illustrations of embryos of different species were highly idealized and did not quite accurately reflect reality3 4 .
By the beginning of the 20th century, many facts had accumulated that contradicted the biogenetic law in its Haeckelian formulation2 . The phenomenon of neoteny (when the adult stage of a descendant species resembles the larval stage of an ancestor species) directly contradicted the idea of complete recapitulation2 .
Modern evolutionary biology rejects the biogenetic law in its strong form, recognizing only that embryos of related species are indeed similar to each other but do not exactly repeat the adult forms of ancestors2 4 . As contemporary scientists note: "Embryos do reflect the course of evolution, but this path is much more complex and intricate than Haeckel claimed"4 .
Powerful Microscope
Research of marine plankton and radiolariansComparative Anatomy
Comparison of embryos of different speciesArtistic Sketches
Detailed illustration of biological objectsPhylogenetic Trees
Visualization of evolutionary relationshipsMonism Philosophy and Cultural Influence
After 1891, Haeckel increasingly immersed himself in developing the philosophical aspects of evolutionary theory6 . He became an ardent admirer of monism - a scientific-philosophical theory intended, in his opinion, to replace traditional religion6 . Later, he founded the "Monist League", which propagated evolutionism as a kind of secular religion7 .
Haeckel's ideas significantly influenced not only science but also culture and social thought at the beginning of the 20th century. Through his student Nikolai Miklukho-Maclay, he influenced the development of anthropology in Russia1 . His works influenced such diverse thinkers as Sigmund Freud and Herbert Spencer, who applied the principle of recapitulation to psychology and sociology4 .
Global Influence
Haeckel's ideas spread worldwide, influencing scientific thought in Europe, Russia, and America.
Interdisciplinary Impact
His concepts influenced diverse fields including psychology, sociology, and art.
Monism
The philosophical position that reality consists of one fundamental substance or principle, rejecting mind-body dualism.
Evolutionary Worldview
Applying evolutionary principles to understand all aspects of existence, from biology to culture.
Scientific Materialism
The view that all phenomena, including mental ones, are the result of material interactions.
Legacy That Transcended Time
By the centenary of Haeckel's birth in 1934, his scientific legacy had firmly entered the golden fund of biology, despite the controversy of individual theories. Today, looking back, we can appreciate the true scale of his contributions: more than 700 scientific publications, thousands of discovered species, fundamental terms that entered the lexicon of every science, and artistic works inspiring not only scientists but also artists8 .
Haeckel himself would probably have been satisfied to learn that even his once-rejected biogenetic law in modified form continues to live on - in studies of heterochrony (changes in the timing of embryonic development) and evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), which study how changes in embryogenesis lead to evolutionary innovations4 .
His story reminds us that science is not a collection of immutable truths but a living, evolving organism where even the misconceptions of geniuses can be fruitful, and bold hypotheses, even if not fully confirmed, stimulate search and movement of thought forward.
References
References will be populated here manually.